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The Dalmatian pelican ( Pelecanus crispus), also known as the curly-headed pelican, is the largest member of the pelican family and among the heaviest flying birds in the world. With a wingspan typically ranging between , (2026). 9780008547462, HarperCollins. ISBN 9780008547462 it ranks among the largest soaring birds. These pelicans are known for their graceful flight and often travel in synchronised flocks. With a range spanning across much of Central Eurasia, from the eastern Mediterranean in the west to the Taiwan Strait in the east, and from the Persian Gulf in the south to Siberia in the north, it is a short-to-medium-distance Bird migration between breeding and overwintering areas.
As with other pelicans, its diet is mainly fish, and the males are larger than the females. Its curly nape feathers, grey legs and silvery-white plumage are distinguishing features, and the wings appear solid grey in flight. The adults acquire a Moulting in winter, however, making them look more similar to the great white pelican. Its harsh vocalizations become more pronounced during the mating season. It breeds across the Palearctic from southeastern Europe to Russia, India and China in swamps and shallow lakes. It usually returns to traditional breeding sites, where it is less social than other pelican species. Its bird nest are crude heaps of vegetation, which are placed on islands or dense mats of vegetation.
The species' numbers dramatically declined during the 20th century, partly due to land use, disturbance and poaching activities. The core population survives in Russia, but in its Mongolian range, it is critically endangered. Removal of power lines to prevent bird strike or electrocution and constructing nesting platforms or rafts have reversed declines locally.
Several lines of evidence support the recognition of P. crispus and P. philippensis as distinct species. First, their breeding ranges do not overlap: P. crispus is found across southeastern Europe and Central Asia, while P. philippensis is restricted to South and Southeast Asia. They also differ markedly in nesting behaviour; P. crispus nests on the ground, while P. philippensis nests colonially in trees, a relatively rare strategy among pelicans. Furthermore, the two species exhibit differences in Sexual selection traits: P. crispus develops a bright red gular pouch during the breeding season, whereas P. philippensis retains a pale pouch year-round and displays distinctive dark spots on the bill, which are absent in P. crispus and likely function in mate signalling.
Evidence of behavioural reproductive isolation also comes from a captive mixed-species colony at the Berlin Zoo, where P. crispus and P. philippensis were housed together but did not interbreed, despite the presence of hybrid pairings among other pelican species. Finally, a 2013 molecular phylogenetic analysis based on mitochondrial and Nuclear DNA DNA confirmed that P. crispus and P. philippensis represent distinct evolutionary lineages. The divergence between the two species has been estimated at 0.7 million years ago, during the Chibanian (Middle Pleistocene).
The species is most easily recognised by its enormous bill, which typically measures between long and includes a large pouch used for catching fish. This makes it the bird species with the second longest bill, only surpassed by the Australian pelican ( Pelecanus conspicillatus), whose bill length ranges from . During the breeding season, this pouch becomes a vivid orange-red, contrasting with the more subdued yellow or grey tones observed during the rest of the year. The upper mandible remains greyish throughout, often with a slight orange tip.
The Dalmatian pelican has silvery-white plumage, which may appear more grey or creamy, especially in winter. Dalmatian pelican videos, photos and facts – Pelecanus crispus . ARKive. Retrieved on 2012-08-22. A distinguishing feature is the presence of a shaggy crest of curly feathers on the nape and back of the head, giving the bird a notably unkempt appearance compared to the smooth-headed great white pelican ( Pelecanus onocrotalus).del Hoyo, et al., Handbook of the Birds of the World. Volume 1: Ostrich to Ducks. Lynx Edicons (1992), The legs are dark grey, another feature that helps separate it from related species with pinkish legs.
While generally a quiet species, the Dalmatian pelican may produce deep, guttural grunts, hisses, or barking sounds during the breeding season. Juveniles are overall greyer and duller in appearance, with less distinctive crests and darker plumage, but gradually acquire the characteristic silvery-white plumage as they mature.
By contrast, populations in Asia undertake more substantial migration. Pelicans breeding in southern Russia generally migrate to the central Middle East for the winter, with many wintering in wetlands across Iran and extending through the Indian subcontinent, reaching as far south as Sri Lanka and westward into Nepal and central India. Mongolian-breeding birds follow a different route, traveling to the east coast of China, including areas around Hong Kong, to spend the winter months.
flight, the Dalmatian pelican is striking: it soars with slow, powerful wingbeats, neck pulled back in a characteristic "S" shape similar to a heron. The wings are broad and pale greyish-white, with noticeable black tips on the primaries. This bird often flies in synchronized groups, gliding gracefully and silently above lakes and .
Takeoff from water is particularly energetic. The pelican requires strong pushes with both feet and heavy flapping of its broad wings to become airborne, especially when carrying a full pouch of fish.
Additionally, the species they prey on tend to form schools or shoals, are often benthic, and exhibit slow movements. These traits facilitate collective predation. Such preferences are typical of visual predators that forage in groups or in clear waters. Below are examples of prey species recorded in its diet:
The size of fish consumed varies widely depending on location and availability, with recorded prey ranging from as little as 3 grams up to 2,500 grams, although more typically between 30 and 1,200 grams. When feeding on smaller fish, Dalmatian pelicans have been observed increasing their consumption rate to meet energetic needs.
At Lake Mikri Prespa, regurgitates from adult pelicans feeding chicks contained an average of 384 g of fish, with up to 29 individual fish per sample. The size of these prey items ranged from 52 to 153 mm, although some regurgitates included individuals as small as 44 mm and weighing just 0.57 g.
Their diet also shows marked variation. In early spring, they feed on fish that have died from hypoxia induced by Sea ice. By late spring and early summer (May–June), their diet is dominated by adult fish. In mid-summer (July), they shift to juvenile fish. When chicks hatch, parents feed them a paste of semi-digested fish regurgitated directly into their bills. By late summer (August), Fledge begin catching appropriately sized fish themselves. For example, by around 1.5 months of age, they are already catching sticklebacks.
In autumn, large congregations of Dalmatian Pelicans gather at sites such as the Terek Delta to exploit seasonal movements of freshwater Juvenile fish. Remarkably, from November to April, their diet remains largely unknown, leaving a significant gap in our understanding of their feeding ecology for nearly half the year.
In the deeper waters of the Prespa lakes and the Caspian Sea River delta, where diving spots are scarce, ( Phalacrocorax carbo) gather in large numbers. As they dive and disturb fish shoals, Dalmatian pelicans take advantage, swimming forward to catch the fish that rise near the surface. If this fails, pelicans may turn to opportunistic kleptoparasitism, striking at cormorants as they surface to steal their catch. ( Canis aureus) in Iran.|left]] Adult Dalmatian pelicans have no known natural predators, and predation is not considered a significant cause of adult mortality. Nonetheless, adult survival may be affected by Parasitism ( Contracaecum spp.) acquired from the fish they consume. Eggs, however, are vulnerable. When water levels fall, Canidae such as Eurasian lynx, , , Wolf, and can reach the nests and feed on the eggs.Crivelli, A. J. (April 1996). Action Plan for the Dalmatian Pelican (Pelecanus crispus) In Europe. europa.eu Wild boar have also been seen trampling nests while moving through colonies. In addition, large gulls and have been observed preying on eggs in Russia, Albania, and Turkey.Krivenko, V. G. (1994). Pelicans in the former USSR (Vol. 27). International Waterfowl and Wetlands Research Bureau.
The nest is a moderately-sized pile of grass, reeds, sticks, and feathers, usually measuring about deep and across. Nests are usually located on or near the ground, often being placed on dense floating vegetation. Nests tend to be flimsy until cemented together by droppings. Breeding commences in March or April, about a month before the great white pelican breeds. The Dalmatian pelican lays a clutch of one to six eggs, with two eggs being the norm. Eggs weigh between . Dalmatian Pelican – Pelecanus crispus: WAZA: World Association of Zoos and Aquariums . WAZA. Retrieved on 2012-08-22. Incubation, which is split between both parents, lasts for 30 to 34 days. The chicks are born naked but soon sprout white down feathers. Aggressive behaviour between siblings is very rare and generally non-fatal. When the young are 6 to 7 weeks of age, the pelicans frequently gather in "pods". The offspring fledge at around 85 days and become independent at 100 to 105 days old. Nesting success relies on local environmental conditions, with anywhere from 58% to 100% of hatchlings successfully surviving to adulthood. Sexual maturity is thought to be obtained at three or four years of age.Crivelli, A. J., D. Hatzilacou, and G. Catsadorakis. "The breeding biology of the Dalmatian Pelican Pelecanus crispus." Ibis 140.3 (1998): 472–481.
Census integrate aerial and ground Survey sampling, bird ringing programs, and increasingly, satellite telemetry using GPS tags. These tools are vital instruments for tracking population trends, guiding conservation priorities, evaluating the success of habitat restoration, and informing national and international conservation status assessments. They support the design and revision of action plans, the identification of key breeding and wintering sites, and the monitoring of reintroduction efforts and mitigation measures.
identification
Yet such challenges have spurred innovation. During extreme climatic events, such as the Caspian freeze of 2012, unexpected congregation sites were reported by local observers, revealing previously unknown wintering habitats. These moments prompted methodological shifts: enhanced winter monitoring, closer collaboration with local fishing communities, and the adoption of real-time reporting tools.
Citizen science has also played a transformative role. In countries like China and Iran, some of the most significant observations (a sudden count exceeding 100 individuals) were reported not by government agencies, but by Volunteering and grassroots networks such as the China Coastal Waterbird Census. In places like Mongolia and China, population estimates often rely on short-term, grant-funded initiatives, making the continuity of monitoring efforts uncertain—and dependent more on the presence of observers than on sustained institutional capacity.
Proposed extinct subspecies
In 1941, Soviet ornithologist P.V. Serebrovsky proposed the existence of an extinct fossil subspecies of the Dalmatian pelican, Pelecanus crispus palaeocrispus, based on Pleistocene remains found at the Binagadi raion tar pits in present-day Azerbaijan. Nonetheless, the subspecies is not formally accepted by international taxonomic authorities.
Description
The Dalmatian pelican is the largest of all pelican species and one of the heaviest flying birds in the world, with a body length of , a wingspan typically ranging between ., and an average weight of about . CRC Handbook of Avian Body Masses, 2nd Edition by John B. Dunning Jr. (Editor). CRC Press (2008), .
Distribution and habitat
Historically, the Dalmatian pelican was far more widespread across Europe than it is today. Subfossil remains dating back to the Holocene climatic optimum, approximately 7400 to 5000 years Before Present have been found as far north as Denmark. Additional remains dated to 1900–600 BP have been uncovered in central Europe, the Netherlands, and Great Britain. These finds suggest that the species once ranged across much of the continent during periods of warmer climate., the Dalmatian pelican is widely distributed across southeastern Europe, Central Asia, and the Indian subcontinent, inhabiting large, open wetlands such as lakes, rivers, River delta, Estuary, and . Unlike the great white pelican, which remains mostly in lowlands, the Dalmatian pelican nests at various elevations and is more Philopatry, typically returning to the same traditional breeding sites unless they become unsuitable due to disturbance or degradation. During the non-breeding season, the Dalmatian pelican seeks out ice-free inland waters, such as large lakes in Europe or temporary wetlands known as jheels in India, which provide essential foraging and resting habitat. As global temperatures rise and such habitats become more widely available or persist longer into the year, there is growing evidence that the species is gradually expanding its range, responding to increasingly favorable environmental conditions.
Current populations and breeding sites
The global population of the Dalmatian pelican is estimated at between 10,000 and 20,000 individuals, with roughly 3,000 to 5,000 breeding pairs. Dalmatian Pelican ( Pelecanus crispus) – BirdLife species factsheet. Birdlife.org (1998-10-03). Retrieved on 2012-08-22. Although the species suffered dramatic declines during the 20th century, several strongholds remain. The largest known breeding colony is found at Small Prespa Lake, which is shared between Greece and Albania and supports around 1,600 pairs. Another significant population persists in the Danube Delta, with approximately 450 pairs recorded there.
Russia now hosts the largest breeding population of the Dalmatian pelican, with estimates exceeding 3,000 pairs, representing about 70% of all breeding individuals worldwide. In the southern Tyumen Oblast of Russia, the only known breeding site is Tenis, where Dalmatian pelicans nest on reed islets. Other active breeding sites are scattered across southeastern Europe, including regions in Ukraine, North Macedonia, Romania, Bulgaria—particularly the Srebarna Nature Reserve—and Albania, where Karavasta Lagoon serves as a key nesting site. Although the species was considered extinct in Croatia since the 1950s, a lone Dalmatian pelican was observed there in 2011.
Movements
The Dalmatian pelican is a partial Bird migration, and its movement patterns vary significantly across its range. In Europe, many populations are dispersive rather than fully migratory, with individuals often remaining near their breeding sites year-round or making only short-distance movements to the Mediterranean basin in winter. For example, in the Danube Delta, birds typically arrive in March and leave by the end of August, reflecting a predictable seasonal pattern aligned with breeding and food availability.
Feeding ecology
The Dalmatian pelican is a Piscivore, Apex predator, functionally classified as an opportunistic secondary-to-tertiary consumer. It forages across Fresh water, Brackish water, and coastal ecosystems, primarily during crepuscular hours, using shallow-water surface capture techniques. Its Trophic level positions it as a top-level vertebrate consumer, but below strict apex predators due to its limited prey diversity and lack of intra-guild predation.
Diet composition
They predominantly consume fish from freshwater, brackish, and marine environments. Most of these are small to medium-sized fish; large enough to justify the effort of capture but small enough to be swallowed whole, as pelicans do not tear or chew their prey.
Total quantity
estimates based on field observations suggested that adult Dalmatian pelicans could consume between 2.5 and 3 kilograms of fish per day, although later field data and stomach analyses have indicated more typical daily consumption ranges of 1.2–1.5 kilograms.
Spatial and temporal foraging patterns
The diet of the Dalmatian Pelican is shaped by its foraging patterns, which are constrained by both the time of day when they fish and the proximity to their nesting sites. They typically forage in the early morning, at dawn, and during the late hours of the day, at dusk. When breeding, they rarely forage beyond 1 km from the nest—an interesting contrast to Great White Pelicans, which may travel tens of kilometres to find food.
Feeding range
The Dalmatian Pelican is a generalist predator, but its diet varies with the prey available in each waterbody. It forages across diverse habitats and depths, from Scavenger dead fish in drying wetlands to hunting live prey in waters up to 8 metres deep. Most of the fish it consumes inhabit shallow areas such as lake shores, Estuary, channels, and .
Foraging behaviour
Dalmatian Pelicans generally forage alone, in pairs, or occasionally in trios, swimming upright and periodically plunging their heads to seize prey just beneath the surface. These imposing waterbirds cannot dive deep; instead, they depend on shallow waters, where fish linger near the surface and fishermen seldom intrude. When prey remains out of reach in deeper waters, pelicans may form loose Cooperation, arranging themselves into semicircles that drive fish toward the shallows. Once in clear waters rich in submerged vegetation, pelicans may remain almost motionless, waiting for fish to venture within striking distance..]]During autumn, as water levels recede and wetlands dry, Dalmatian Pelicans turn to scavenging, feeding on fish weakened or killed by hypoxia and desiccation. This behaviour helps limit the spread of disease and restores a precarious balance to the ecosystem. In these shrinking landscapes, the pelican endures, plunging, preying, and holding disease at bay.
Trophic interactions
Dalmatian pelicans play an important role in the wetland food web. They are primarily predators, but they also act as Commensalism, Kleptoparasitism, hosts, and occasionally as Predation. They often forage alongside , , , and Mergus, yet these mixed-species groups are more dynamic than they appear.
Breeding
Among a highly social family in general, the Dalmatian pelican may have the least social inclinations. This species naturally nests in relatively small groups compared to most other pelican species and sometimes may even nest alone. However, small colonies are usually formed, which regularly include upwards of 250 pairs (especially historically). Occasionally, Dalmatian pelicans may mix in with colonies of great white pelicans. Nesting sites selected are usually either islands in large bodies of water (typically lagoons or river deltas) or dense mats of aquatic vegetation, such as extensive of Phragmites and Typha. Due to its large size, this pelican often tramples the vegetation in the area surrounding its nest into the muddy substrate and thus nesting sites may become unsuitably muddy after around three years of usage.
Threats
Throughout the 20th century, the Dalmatian pelican underwent a dramatic decline in numbers, becoming one of the most threatened pelican species. Habitat loss due to wetland drainage and Land development is considered one of the primary drivers of this decline.
Conflict with fisheries
In some regions, conflict with fisheries has led to localized persecution of Dalmatian pelicans, which are occasionally shot by fishermen who perceive them as competitors for declining fish stocks. While such killings tend to occur on a small scale, the perception that pelicans significantly deplete fish populations remains widespread in many fishing communities. However, statistical comparisons have shown that the composition of pelican diet differs notably from fishery yields, suggesting only limited direct competition. At Karavasta Lagoon in Albania, Dalmatian pelicans were estimated to consume between 13.7% and 16.5% of the mean fishery catch in 1992, and between 19.4% and 23.3% in 1993, although the methods and assumptions used in these calculations have been questioned.
Poaching
Poaching represents an additional serious threat in parts of Asia, particularly in Mongolia. There, local Poaching kill pelicans to sell their bills, which are fashioned into pouches. These pelican bill pouches are highly valued; on a typical day in a Mongolian market, as many as 50 may be offered for sale, and their worth can be equivalent to a trade of ten horses and thirty sheep. This level of exploitation has reduced the Mongolian population to fewer than 130 individuals, making the species critically endangered in that region.
Power line collisions
Electrocution is a frequent cause of death in areas where power lines cross known flight paths. Efforts to reduce mortality from power lines have included marking dangerous lines with visual warnings and even dismantling some infrastructure near breeding colonies.
Tourism
Human disturbance at breeding sites has also been a major factor. Like all pelicans, Dalmatian pelicans are extremely sensitive to disturbance; if approached or startled, adults may temporarily abandon their nests, exposing eggs and chicks to predation or fatal exposure to the elements. In Greece, high levels of disturbance from Boating—particularly Motorboat carrying tourists—have been linked to feeding disruptions, sometimes causing starvation and mortality in pelican populations.
Conservation
Water level management, habitat restoration, and public education programs have played vital roles in improving local conditions for breeding success. However, conservation progress has been slower in parts of Asia, where poaching, shooting, and habitat destruction remain more pervasive and difficult to control.
Monitoring and population censuses
Dalmatian pelicans have been systematically monitored since 1967 through mid-winter counts conducted as part of the International Waterbird Census (IWC), coordinated by Wetlands International. Today, the species is surveyed across five major population units: the Western and Eastern subpopulations of the Black Sea–Mediterranean flyway, the North Caucasus and West Caspian Sea populations, the Central and West Asia flyway populations, and the Mongolia–China population. These efforts are coordinated by BirdLife International and the UNEP/AEWA Secretariat, in collaboration with national and local partners.
Summary of institutions or organisations involved in the Dalmatian pelican census
Challenges and innovations
Despite decades of effort, comprehensive coverage remains difficult in some regions due to limited access, sparse ornithological infrastructure, or logistical constraints. Pelicans are mobile and wide-ranging, and counts may underestimate their numbers due to weather conditions, observer error, or birds moving between roosting and feeding areas.
Transboundary cooperation
Pelican monitoring has also catalysed international cooperation. Because Dalmatian pelicans rely on transboundary wetlands, such as Lake Prespa, effective census work demands cross-border coordination, even between states with political tensions. For example, although many birds nest in Greece, they frequently forage in North Macedonia. Yet, for years, the latter was not recognized as a "range state" in conservation terms, despite its ecological importance.
Floating rafts
, Turkey, showing rafts and platforms that allow pelicans to nest. ]]The Dalmatian pelican is protected under the Agreement on the Conservation of African-Eurasian Migratory Waterbirds (AEWA), and several countries have launched national initiatives to protect and restore populations. Artificial nesting platforms have been installed in Turkey, Greece, Bulgaria, and Romania, encouraging breeding where natural nest sites have been lost or degraded. Additionally, floating rafts have been placed in wetlands in Greece and Bulgaria, providing secure nesting spots isolated from predators and human disturbance.
Community conservation
A notable example of community-driven conservation occurred in 2012, when extreme cold froze large sections of the Caspian Sea, threatening the survival of overwintering Dalmatian pelicans. Despite initial discouragement from local authorities, many residents took action, bringing fish and hand-feeding the birds to help them survive the harsh conditions." Trapped Dalmatian pelicans hand-fed in frozen Caspian Sea". BBC News (2012-02-21). Retrieved on 2012-08-22.
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